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The Role of Structural Fiscal Policy on Female Labor Force Participation in OECD Countries


The article emphasizes the need for greater female representation on corporate boards, particularly in smaller companies where this issue is more pronounced. It challenges the notion of a limited pool of suitable female candidates and criticizes current nomination practices and biases that undervalue women’s contributions. Highlighting successful strategies from diverse companies, it calls for transparency in reporting gender diversity at all management levels to build a qualified female leadership pipeline. State Street’s SSGA Gender Diversity Index, launched in 2016, is mentioned as a tool for investors to support gender-diverse leadership and achieve returns while contributing to gender equality initiatives.

IMF (2023). “The Role of Structural Fiscal Policy on Female Labor Force Participation inOECD Countries”. IMF Working Papers, WP/23/186.

Talent pipelineLeadership

Tackling Gender Inequality: Definitions, Trends, and Policy Designs

The paper examines the complex interplay between gender inequality, childcare, and economic development. It highlights that addressing gender inequality, including disparities in childcare responsibilities, has significant socio-economic benefits, extending beyond women to society as a whole. The document suggests that targeted and general policies, informed by the nuanced understanding of gender gaps and inequality, are crucial in promoting gender equality and enhancing economic efficiency. It emphasizes the need for policies that support equitable childcare and work opportunities to leverage the full potential of the workforce and foster inclusive growth.

IMF (2022). “Tackling Gender Inequality: Definitions, Trends, and Policy Designs”. IMF Working Paper, WP/22/232.

Economic growthProductivity

Reducing and Redistributing Unpaid Work: Stronger Policies to Support Gender Equality

The paper explores the significant role of unpaid work, predominantly undertaken by women, in the economy, and its implications for gender inequality. Highlighting unpaid work’s exclusion from GDP calculations, it emphasizes how this undervaluation affects women’s labor force participation and economic productivity. The paper advocates for policies aimed at reducing and redistributing unpaid work to enhance gender equality and economic efficiency. It suggests that such policy interventions could lead to substantial GDP gains, estimating up to 4% increases in some scenarios.

IMF (2019). “Reducing and Redistributing Unpaid Work: Stronger Policies to Support Gender Equality”. IMF Working Paper, WP/19/225.

Economic growthProductivityUnpaid work

Evidence review of the global childcare crisis and the road for post-covid-19 recovery and resilience

The text emphasizes the critical impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on women’s equality, particularly highlighting the exacerbated childcare crisis. It discusses how women, especially in precarious jobs and the informal sector, have faced significant livelihood disruptions due to lockdowns and restrictions. With the surge in unpaid care work, the document calls for urgent integration of childcare solutions into COVID 19 recovery plans to promote gender equality and economic efficiency. The necessity for global action, especially in supporting low- and middle-income countries, is stressed, alongside the potential economic gains from increased female labor force participation.

Grantham et al. (2021). “Evidence review of the global childcare crisis and the road for post-covid-19 recovery and resilience”. International Development Research Centre.

Economic growthProductivityUnpaid work

Childcare, labor supply and business development: Experimental evidence from Uganda

The study by Bjorvatn et al. (2023) explores the effects of providing childcare in Uganda, comparing outcomes for mothers given free childcare, cash grants, both, or neither. It found that childcare boosts household income (both mother and father) and child development, particularly aiding single mothers. While cash grants helped mothers with labour and business, they didn’t impact fathers or child development. The research suggests targeted interventions based on cash grants for female employment and childcare for broader household benefits.

Bjorvatn et al (2023), “Childcare, labor supply and business development: Experimental evidence from Uganda”.

Increase incomeChild developmentGender equality

Are Women Not ‘Working’? Interactions between Childcare and Women’s EconomicEngagement

The paper by Chopra et al. (2023) examines the impact of childcare on women’s economic activities in India, Nepal, Tanzania, and Rwanda. It reveals that childcare, both direct and supervisory, significantly consumes women’s time, affecting their ability to engage in paid work. The study highlights the complex trade-offs women face between caregiving and income-generating roles, influenced by household economics, care alternatives, social norms, and the structure of available jobs.

Deepta Chopra, Amrita Saha, Sohela Nazneen and Meenakshi Krishnan (2020). “Are Women Not ‘Working’? Interactions between Childcare and Women’s Economic Engagement”. IDS Working Paper 533, Institute of Development Studies.

Unpaid workEmployment

The childcare dividend initiative. Unheard voices: measuringthe urgency for childcare investment and policy reform

The “Childcare Dividend Initiative” report by Economist Impact, supported by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, explores the crucial role of childcare in enhancing women’s labour participation and societal well-being. It highlights the economic and social barriers caused by inadequate childcare access and the potential benefits of investment in this sector. The report emphasizes the need for policy reform to address childcare affordability, quality, and accessibility, underscoring its significance for economic growth, gender equality, and childhood development.

Economist Impact (2023). “The childcare dividend initiative. Unheard voices: measuring the urgency for childcare investment and policy reform.”

Economic growthChild developmentEmploymentWell-being

Better Jobs and Brighter Futures: Investing in Childcare to Build Human Capital

The report by Devercelli & Beaton-Day (2020) emphasizes the critical role of childcare in enhancing human capital. It highlights the substantial gap in childcare access globally and outlines actions for expanding quality, affordable childcare, especially for vulnerable families. Updated to consider COVID-19 impacts, the report argues that improved childcare access can significantly benefit women’s employment, children’s development, and overall economic growth, advocating for targeted government interventions to address this pressing issue.

Amanda E. Devercelli and Frances Beaton-Day (2020). “Better Jobs and Brighter Futures: Investing in Childcare to Build Human Capital”. World Bank Group.

Economic growthChild developmentEmploymentHuman capital

Gender Equality in International Aid: What has Norwegian Gender Politics Got to Do With It?

The article by Selbervik and Østebø examines how Norway’s domestic gender equality policies, particularly concerning care and breadwinning, are reflected in its international aid policies. Despite Norway’s reputation for gender equality, and early childhood care and education as a central initiative to achieve it, the study finds these domestic policies are not significantly integrated into its aid strategies. The authors argue for the inclusion of childcare, motherhood, and fatherhood in international aid policies, emphasizing the importance of contextualized, culturally sensitive approaches and the potential relevance of Norwegian experiences for aid-receiving countries.

Hilde Selbervik & Marit Tolo Østebø (2013). «Gender Equality in International Aid: What has Norwegian Gender Politics Got to Do With It?”. Gender, Technology and Development 17(2), 205–228.

Aid policy

The Economics of Human Development and Social Mobility

Heckman and Mosso (2014) delve into the economics of human development and social mobility, presenting a comprehensive overview of how early life conditions influence skill development across a lifespan. They argue for the critical nature of early interventions in shaping life outcomes and highlight the limited effectiveness of income transfer policies in improving child outcomes. The study underscores the importance of targeted investments in early childhood care and education, noting that such investments yield significant long- term benefits in terms of improved social mobility and economic productivity.

James J. Heckman and Stefano Mosso (2014). “The Economics of Human Development and Social Mobility”. Annual Review of Economics, 6:689–733.

ProductivityChild developmentSocial mobility

How motherhood hurts careers

The article discusses a study on the “motherhood penalty,” highlighting its impact on women’s employment in 134 countries. It shows that motherhood significantly reduces women’s likelihood of employment, with 24% leaving the workforce in the first year after childbirth, and 15% remaining out after ten years. The penalty varies globally, with cultural norms and economic factors influencing women’s decisions to return to work. Policy reforms in childcare and parental leave are suggested as ways to support mothers re-entering the workforce.

The Economist (2024). “How motherhood hurts careers”. The Economist, Jan 30th, 2024.

EmploymentMotherhood penalty

The benefits of investing in transformative childcare policy packages towards gender equality and social justice

The report underscores the economic and social benefits of closing the global childcare policy gap, highlighting an average $3.76 return on every dollar invested by 2035. It emphasizes the potential for increased women’s employment and reduced gender wage gaps, advocating for transformative investments in childcare and early childhood education to promote gender equality, economic growth, and social justice globally.

International Labour Organization (2023). “The benefits of investing in transformative childcare policy packages towards gender equality and social justice.” ILO Brief, October, 2023.

Economic growthChildcare policy gapSocial justice

New data shine light on gender gaps in the labour market

The report on “The Jobs Gap” reveals the significant global employment disparities, especially among women. Introducing the “jobs gap” indicator, the report uncovers that the traditional unemployment rate underrepresents the actual scarcity of jobs, with the global jobs gap affecting around 473 million people. This gap is more pronounced for women, particularly in developing countries, highlighting the urgent need for targeted employment creation and policies to improve the quality of jobs available to women, addressing both the quantity and quality of employment opportunities.

International Labour Organization (2023). “New data shine light on gender gaps in the labour market.” ILO Brief, March, 2023.

Employment

The child care economy: How investments in early care and education can fuel U.S. economic growth immediately and over the long term

The report emphasizes the economic benefits of investing in early care and education, highlighting how it supports immediate and long-term U.S. economic growth. It addresses the current inadequacies of the private childcare market, advocating for increased public investment to ensure accessible, affordable, and high-quality childcare. The report suggests that such investments can stimulate economic activity, enhance human capital development, and offer substantial returns by improving labour force participation, especially among women, and fostering better developmental outcomes for children.

Abbott, Sam (2021). “The child care economy: How investments in early care and education can fuel U.S. economic growth immediately and over the long term”. The Washington Center for Equitable Growth.

Economic growthChild developmentEmployment

Et jevnere utdanningsløp: Barnehage og skole/SFO som innsats mot ulikhet blant barn

The report addresses the issue of educational inequality in Norway, focusing on how early education settings like kindergartens and schools can help level the playing field. It highlights the persistent educational gaps from an early age, particularly for children from lower socio-economic backgrounds, and suggests targeted interventions to enhance
educational outcomes. The recommendations include improving the quality of early education, ensuring better transitions between kindergarten and school, and emphasizing the development of social and emotional skills to foster a more equitable educational trajectory for all children.

Løken et al. (2024). “Et jevnere utdanningsløp: Barnehage og skole/SFO som innsats mot ulikhet blant barn.”

Social mobility

The power of parity: How advancing women’s equalitycan add $12 trillion to global growth

The McKinsey Global Institute report, “The Power of Parity,” explores the economic impact of gender equality, estimating that achieving gender parity could add $12 trillion to $28 trillion to global GDP by 2025. It highlights the significant economic opportunities lost due to gender disparities in work, education, health, and representation. The report emphasizes the need for targeted interventions in ten “impact zones”, such as access to quality and affordable childcare, to close gender gaps and improve economic outcomes, urging businesses, governments, and NGOs to collaborate on transformative actions for gender equality.

McKinsey Global Institute (2015). “The power of parity: How advancing women’s equality can add $12 trillion to global growth.” McKinsey & Company.

Economic growth

Understanding young women’s pathways to economic empowerment & resilience: an exploratory qualitative study of rural communities in Ethiopia, Malawi, and Nepal

The study by PLAN International explores the economic empowerment and resilience of young women in rural Ethiopia, Malawi, and Nepal. It identifies barriers like cultural norms, gender inequality, lack of education, and limited job opportunities, while suggesting enablers like vocational training and financial access. Recommendations include skill
development, financial support, addressing childcare and unpaid work, and enhancing formal education, alongside transforming social norms and improving access to sexual and reproductive health services.

Plan International (2023). “Understanding young women’s pathways to economic empowerment & resilience: an exploratory qualitative study of rural communities in Ethiopia, Malawi, and Nepal.”

Unpaid work

From Double Burden of Women to a “Double Boon”: Balancing UnpaidCare Work and Paid Work

The policy brief highlights the double burden faced by women in India due to unpaid care work and poorly paid employment. It stresses the transition to a “double boon,” where women’s economic empowerment programs improve their work conditions and address unpaid care responsibilities. The brief advocates for care-sensitive policies, access to essential resources, and decent work opportunities. It calls for a societal shift to recognize, reduce, and redistribute unpaid care work, urging parliamentarians to support these changes through gender-responsive policies and infrastructure improvements.

Sudeshna Sengupta, Shubhika Sachdeva, Shraddha Chigateri, Mubashira Zaidi, and Deepta Chopra (2017). “From Double Burden of Women to a “Double Boon”: Balancing Unpaid Care Work and Paid Work.” Institute of Development Studies, UK.

Unpaid workPoor jobs

The economics of early childhood investments

The White House report from the Obama administration in 2015 focuses on the economic benefits of investing in early childhood care and education (ECCE). It underscores the substantial returns to society from such investments, including enhanced cognitive and socio-emotional development in children, increased earnings and employment for parents, and broader societal benefits like reduced crime and less need for remedial education. The report emphasizes the value of early interventions and high-quality childcare in fostering long-term economic growth and reducing inequalities.

Executive Office of the President of the United States of America (2015). “The economics of early childhood investments”.

Economic growthSocial mobility

Estimating Care Deficits, Investment Costs and Economic Returns to the case of ECCE in Ethiopia

The UN Women Ethiopia (2023) report assesses the gaps in Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) in Ethiopia, the investments required to address these gaps, and the economic returns of such investments. It reveals significant deficits in ECCE coverage, with millions of children lacking access to formal services. The report estimates the costs of eliminating these deficits and projects substantial job creation and GDP growth benefits from such investments, emphasizing the importance of investing in the care economy to reduce gender disparities and enhance economic and social development.

UN Women (2023). “Estimating Care Deficits, Investment Costs and Economic Returns to the case of ECCE in Ethiopia.”

Economic growthGender equalityEthiopiaJob creation

A Guide to Public Investments in the Care EconomyPolicy Support Tool for Estimating Care Deficits, Investment Costs and Economic Returns

The UN Women and ILO Policy Tool provides a comprehensive guide for public investment in the care economy, aimed at identifying care service coverage gaps, estimating investment costs, and assessing economic returns. It emphasizes the importance of investing in care
services to enhance gender equality, create jobs, and stimulate economic growth, particularly in the context of recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic. The tool outlines methodologies for assessing care needs, costing services, and evaluating the broader economic benefits of such investments.

UN Women & ILO (2021). “A Guide to Public Investments in the Care Economy Policy Support Tool for Estimating Care Deficits, Investment Costs and Economic Returns.” ILO Brief, March 2021.

Economic growthGender equalityJob creation

Global gender gap report 2023

The 2023 Global Gender Gap Report by the World Economic Forum benchmarks gender parity across 146 countries in four key dimensions: Economic Participation and Opportunity, Educational Attainment, Health and Survival, and Political Empowerment. The report highlights global progress towards closing these gaps, noting a slight improvement in the overall gender gap score. However, it also emphasizes the slow pace of progress, projecting it will take 131 years to achieve full parity at the current rate, with significant disparities remaining in economic participation and political leadership.

World Economic Forum (2023). “Global gender gap report 2023.”

LeadershipEmployment

Early Childhood Education and Care from a Gender Perspective

Early childhood interventions are often seen as beneficial for child development but tend to overlook the impact on women, both as unpaid family caregivers and as childcare workers. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development encourages a holistic approach to these
issues, aligning with the 17 SDGs, especially those related to unpaid care, education, and decent work. However, policies often segregate these goals into different spheres, influencing early childhood education and care (ECEC) program design and its implications for women’s rights. Despite global and national divides, examples from Chile, Ecuador, and
Tamil Nadu show potential for creating gender responsive ECEC services. Rather than prescribing universal policies, global initiatives should foster local debate and experimentation to develop solutions that advance rights for women and children.

Staab, Silke (2018). “Early Childhood Education and Care from a Gender Perspective.” Early Childhood and Development Work.

Unpaid workPolicy

Inequalities in early childhood care and development in low/middle-income countries: 2010–2018

Research on early childhood development (ECD) inequalities in low/middle-income countries is limited, affecting policy guidance for nurturing care to prevent disparities. Analysis of data from 135 surveys across 85 countries (2010-2018) revealed significant gaps in stunting, poverty exposure, early education attendance, home stimulation, and child development outcomes, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa. These inequalities are pronounced across household wealth, residential areas, and country income groups, with no significant improvements over time in a subset of countries. The findings emphasize the need to target the poorest families and rural areas in efforts to reduce ECD inequalities, alongside the importance of enhancing global ECD measurements to ensure equal opportunities for all children.

Lu, Chunling, Jorge Cuartas, and G. Fink (2020). “Inequalities in early childhood care and development in low/middle-income countries: 2010–2018.” BMJ Global Health.

Child developmentSocial mobility

Perspectivist Challenges for ECD Intervention in Africa

Communication about early childhood education is hindered by the differing views of scientists, policymakers, educators, and caregivers. Scientists focus on explanatory models, policymakers on political agendas, educators on community principles, and caregivers on
local norms and ethnotheories. Effective dialogue demands finding common ground among these diverse perspectives. The prevailing scientific models, shaped within a middle-class, Western context, often clash with the ethnotheories prevalent in rural and low-income urban African communities. This discrepancy poses significant challenges for early childhood development interventions in Africa, particularly in fostering social adjustment, practical competence, and social responsibility.

Serpell, Robert (2018). “Perspectivist Challenges for ECD Intervention in Africa.” Early Childhood and Development Work, pp. 39–68.

Policy

Accessing childcare: Parents’ logistical challenges and gender equality

The paper highlights the importance of early childhood education and care (ECEC) services in promoting gender equality by easing the work and childcare balance for parents. In recent decades, OECD countries have significantly expanded ECEC, recognizing its role in supporting children’s development, future productivity, and allowing parents, particularly mothers, to stay in the workforce. This dual benefit contributes to reducing child poverty and enhancing overall economic productivity, making ECEC a key component of modern knowledge-based economies.

Naumann, Ingela K. (2023). “Accessing childcare: Parents’ logistical challenges and gender equality.” Open Access Government.

ProductivityUnpaid workGender equalityEmployment

Measuring gender equality in education: Lessons from trends in 43 countries

Despite declines in gender inequalities in primary school enrolment in low-income countries, significant disparities persist, challenging the notion that educational imbalances are confined to secondary and higher education levels. With the shift in focus from enrolment to the quality of education and learning outcomes, the issue of non-enrolment in
primary education remains, contradicting premature declarations of success. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 4 and 5, which aim for quality education and reduced gender inequality, highlight the need for a comprehensive grasp of the global state of school enrolment, grade attainment, and learning to make real progress.

Psaki, S., K. McCarthy, B. Mensch (2018). “Measuring gender equality in education: Lessons from trends in 43 countries.” Population and Development Review.

Gender equalitySchool readiness

Child Care, Work-Family Policy and Female Entrepreneurship

This paper investigates the impact of affordable childcare on women’s entrepreneurship, particularly in the context of China’s first universal childcare program. The study reveals that improved access to childcare leads to a significant rise in female entrepreneurship without affecting male entrepreneurship rates. This suggests that work-family policies, such as accessible childcare, could help narrow the gender gap in entrepreneurial activities. The findings underscore the importance of integrating family-friendly policies with initiatives aimed at encouraging female entrepreneurship, indicating a pathway to enhance women’s participation in entrepreneurship through supportive work-family programs.

Wang, Qing (2015). “Child Care, Work-Family Policy and Female Entrepreneurship.”

Entrepreneurship

The kids are alright: working women, schedule flexibility and childcare

This study examines the influence of children and childcare availability on women’s employment and entrepreneurship within different sectors at the county level in the United States. It explores how access to childcare correlates with women’s labour market participation regionally, contributing to existing research by focusing on local contexts. The findings, accounting for possible endogeneity, show that the presence of young children and childcare availability impact women’s employment choices differently across sectors. Women appear to prefer employment in the public sector or self-employment over private sector opportunities, likely as a strategy to better manage childrearing responsibilities.

Conroy, Tessa (2019). “The kids are alright: working women, schedule flexibility and childcare.” Regional Studies.

EmploymentPoor jobsEntrepreneurship

The Impact of Childcare on Poor Urban Women’s Economic Empowerment in Africa

This study from Nairobi, Kenya, shows that limited access to affordable early childcare is a significant barrier to poor urban women’s economic participation. A randomized control trial offering vouchers for subsidized childcare increased employment among women by 8.5 percentage points, particularly among married mothers. Single mothers used the opportunity to transition to jobs with more regular hours, improving their work-life balance without reducing earnings. However, access to subsidized childcare had mixed effects on other aspects of women’s economic empowerment and did not significantly influence household decision-making or fertility intentions. The findings highlight that addressing
childcare needs is crucial for enhancing women’s economic empowerment in urban Africa, though impacts vary by marital status and specific outcomes.

Clark, s., C. Kabiru, Sonia Laszlo, S. Muthuri (2019). “The Impact of Childcare on Poor Urban Women’s Economic Empowerment in Africa.” Demography.

Gender equalityEmploymentAfricaLow-income country

The Effect of Childcare Access on Women’s Careers and Firm Performance”

The study explores the impact of Quebec’s 1997 universal childcare reform on women’s career trajectories and firm outcomes, using tax data and considering the reform’s timing relative to childbirth. Findings indicate that early childcare access boosts employment among new mothers, especially those previously unemployed, and facilitates their transition into more demanding roles within male-dominated firms, leading to increased earnings and productivity. This shift not only benefits the women but also the firms, which typically see lower interest from women with children, as they experience enhanced growth and
performance. The study highlights how childcare barriers restrict women’s career advancement and optimal human capital distribution in the labour market.

Simintzi, Elena, Sheng-Jun Xu, T. Xu (2022). “The Effect of Childcare Access on Women’s Careers and Firm Performance.” SSRN Electronic Journal.

LeadershipProductivityIncome

Closing the Gender Gap: Act Now

The text discusses the positive reception of the OECD’s “Closing the Gender Gap: Act Now” report, highlighting its focus on the crucial role of gender equality in economic growth. It addresses concerns about the impact of austerity measures on women, the disparity in entrepreneurship between genders, and the necessity for governments to systematically assess the gender implications of their policies and programs.

Alcorso, C., & Helen L’Orange (2014). “Closing the Gender Gap: Act Now.” Global Social Policy.

Entrepreneurship

The gender gap in employment and wages

Despite a century of convergence, there is still no evidence of fully closing gender gaps in employment and wages, possibly reflecting a suboptimal allocation of talent. Economic research has emphasized the role of gender differences in preferences, work–life balance considerations and gender identity norms in shaping the observed gender trends.

Petrongolo, Barbara (2019). “The gender gap in employment and wages.” Nature Human Behaviour.

Talent pipeline

The gender pay gap and its impact on women’s economic empowerment

This article aims to examine the gender pay gap and its impact on women’s economic empowerment. The study uses both qualitative and quantitative research methods to explore the relationship between the gender pay gap and women’s economic empowerment. The findings suggest that the gender pay gap has a significant impact on women’s economic empowerment, limiting their financial independence and autonomy. The study also highlights the need for policy interventions and cultural changes to reduce the gender pay gap and promote women’s economic empowerment.

Reshi, Irshad Ahmad & Dr. T. Sudha (2023). “The gender pay gap and its impact on women’s economic empowerment.” Morfai Journal.

IncomeFinancial independence

Explaining the Gender Gap in Help to Parents: The Importance of Employment

Employment status and job characteristics, particularly wages and self-employment, play a significant role in explaining the gender gap in help given to parents, with women more likely to help than men. In other words, women perform more unpaid care because they have less job opportunities, and they have less job opportunities because they perform more unpaid care.

Sarkisian, N. & N. Gerstel (2004). “Explaining the Gender Gap in Help to Parents: The Importance of Employment.” Journal of Marriage and Family.

Unpaid workEmploymentDecent work

Finance – Governments and households

The UNESCO GEM Report highlights the challenges and disparities in global education financing. One-third of countries haven’t met the recommended education finance benchmarks, leading to inequitable outcomes. Low-income nations bear a disproportionate share of education costs, with households often covering significant portions. The report stresses the need for increased, equitable funding to achieve SDG 4, urging for timely, comprehensive data on education spending across all countries to inform better policy and aid distribution.

UNESCO (2023). “Finance – Governments and households.” https://www.education-progress.org/en/articles/finance.

Policy

Investing in early childhood development in preschool and at home

The article by Duncan et al. underscores the critical role of early environmental factors, including preschool programs and home environments, in shaping children’s developmental trajectories and school readiness. It highlights that investments in early childhood,
particularly in skill development and nurturing environments, can have a profound impact on children’s academic and socio-emotional development, setting a foundation for future success. However, the effectiveness of these interventions varies, necessitating further research to identify the most impactful strategies for supporting early development and school readiness.

Duncan, G. et al. (2022). “Investing in early childhood development in preschool and at home.” Working Paper. https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w29985/w29985.pdf

Social mobilitySchool readiness

Universal Early Childhood Education and Care for Toddlers and Achievement Outcomes in Middle Childhood.

The study investigates the impact of universal early childhood education and care (ECEC) for toddlers on academic achievements in middle childhood. The research emphasizes the potential long-term benefits of early educational interventions, suggesting that universal ECEC can significantly contribute to improved educational outcomes. By focusing on a broad population, the study underscores the importance of accessible and quality early childhood education as a foundation for lifelong learning and achievement.

Zachrisson, Henrik et al. (2023). Universal Early Childhood Education and Care for Toddlers and Achievement Outcomes in Middle Childhood. Journal of research on educational effectiveness.

Social mobilitySchool readiness

Care or Cash? The Effect of Child Care Subsidies on Student Performance

The study by Black et al. explores the impact of childcare subsidies on student performance in Norway, utilizing a unique pricing discontinuity for analytical leverage. Despite minimal influence on childcare utilization and parental employment, the research uncovers a notable positive effect on children’s academic outcomes in junior high. This suggests that the financial relief provided by subsidies might enhance children’s educational performance indirectly, possibly through improved household economic conditions or other non-observed factors.

Black, S.E., et al. (2012). “Care or Cash? The Effect of Child Care Subsidies on Student Performance.” Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA). Working Paper No. 6541.

School readiness

Public spending on childcare as an indicator of gender sensitivity of budget

Analysis of public spending on childcare services in the EU highlights a significant correlation between such spending and gender equality in terms of employment rates and the distribution of unpaid work. This suggests that acknowledging different gender roles in budgeting processes can promote greater gender equality in the labour market.

Sikirić & Čičak (2016) “Public spending on childcare as an indicator of gender sensitivity of budget.” Int’l Pub. Admin. Rev., 14, 95.

Unpaid workEmployment